Motivational+Theories

= Motivational Theories  =

“There are three things to remember about education. The first one is motivation. The second one is motivation. The third one is motivation.” - Terrell H. Bell

Behaviourist Theory of Motivation
This theory is based on the premise that motivation can be achieved through rewards. It found that positive rewards such as praise or good marks improved the motivation of the learners whereas negative rewards had the effect of decreasing the motivational level of the test subjects. It is interesting to note that the theory found that while praise could be a powerful motivator, it was only effective if the learner felt the praise being given was genuine and sincere. The theory promotes the following eight criteria when using praise as a motivational reward:
 * Is delivered in response to behaviour that warrants it.
 * Specifies why the praise is deserved.
 * Seems credible, spontaneous, varied and in proportion to the accomplishment.
 * Attributes the learner’s success to effort.
 * Is given in recognition of noteworthy achievement or effort.
 * Provides student with information about their competency.
 * Is given within the context of the student's previous work.
 * Helps students appreciate their own productive behaviour.

Needs Theory of Motivation
The Needs Theory believes that motivation is determined by the level of need it appeals to in the learner. One of its foremost proponents was Abraham Maslow, who created a hierarchy of needs from what he observed. It can be illustrated in this pyramid diagram. Maslow contends that motivation can be achieved by the instructor recognizing the type of need that the learner seeks and by appealing to it can affect the learner’s motivation and that once the base level needs are met the student can focus on their learning and reach a higher level of self-actualization.



Expectancy Theories of Motivation
The following three theories all fall into the category of Expectancy Theories. They all share a similar premise that the learner’s perception of success which determine the level of motivation and effort they will put in to learning new things.


 * ==== Attribution Theory of Motivation **-** This [|theory] promotes an idea that people attribute their successes and failures to either themselves (internal) or to external factors. It found that learners that accepted responsibility for their own successes and failures are more motivated to act in such a way to bring about a positive outcome. This theory has a very practical application with adult learners returning to school after a long time away from instruction. The learner that does not look for external reasons that may hinder the learning experience and exercise a level of focus and control will be more motivated in the long run because they will see themselves as the source of their success or failure. The instructor can alleviate many external factors that may hinder a student's ability to learn by fostering a safe and inviting environment to learn in. ====
 * ==== Achievement Theory **-** The Achievement theory is based on how the learner approaches their expectation of success in learning. It finds there are two types of achievers, the high-achiever who places a high value on being successful and the low-achiever who are not as driven to achieve a high standard. From a motivational standpoint the theory differentiates the two achievers, low and high in how they handle success and failure. The high-achiever paradoxically may see a drop in motivation if they do too well in a course and do not find it challenging while they will work very hard to achieve if they do not find themselves meeting their high expectations of success. The low-achiever on the other hand will be motivated to work harder when they see successful results but may give up completely when faced with lack of success. The implication this has for the instructor is that they must monitor their classes closely for this kind of behaviour and ask the high-achiever to set new goals closer to their standard to keep them motivated and to assist the low-achiever so that they will see some success and keep focused and motivated. Thankfully, most students fall into a category in between these extremes. ====
 * ==== Expectancy-Value Theory - This theory takes the motivating factor of expectation that a student brings to a class and adds the element of value to it. It asks what value the student places in what they are learning and if the value the student places on the course can act as a motivational multiplier increasing the students focus on the course material. For example, an adult learner may be a low-achiever and have low expectations for success in a course but may need to course to complete a degree and places a high value in being successful. The value attached to the instruction would act as a multiplier increasing the motivational level of that said student where expectation alone would not.====
 * ==== Goal Theory **-** I included the [|Goal theory] in with the other expectation theories as it is a theory based on what goals the adult learner sets for themselves when taking instruction. I felt that Goal theory lent itself well to an application with online learning. Adult learners are more apt to be self-motivated when they set goals for themselves. When someone else the goals for a learner, there is a chance that the adult learner will not be as motivated as they would setting their own goals and reach a stage where they meet criteria and say good enough. In online learning which is in many ways self guided setting clear, achievable, but still challenging goals the learner will be motivated to work hard because they have set them themselves. For this theory to be fully realized in practice there is a need for setting mileposts in the learning experience and getting feedback so that self learning can be accurate and directed. ====



Cognitive Dissonance Theory
This is a theory is an intrinsic form of motivation, that involves a clashing of ideas of views. It believes motivation occurs when concepts being instructed conflict with the beliefs and values of the learner. The learner is motivated because new ideas that challenge long held views make the learner uncomfortable and inquisitive (or hostile). In this theory the learning is gained by having to defend ones position and beliefs. The instructor may need to use some caution when using this technique depending on the subject matter being taught but it would be useful in class discussions and debates.

ARCS Theory
The [|ARCS theory] is a four factor theory that contends that motivation can be brought about in a student through Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction. The first thing the instructor has to do is get the student’s attention and it. This can be done by varying the methods of instruction, asking questions that arouse the learner's level of perception or inquisitiveness. Once the attention of the student is gained, the instructor also has to ensure that the material being covered will be considered relevant to the learner to keep their interest and motivate them by feeling the instruction as some applicable value to them. The instructor can further motivate the learner by developing their confidence in the subject matter and giving them a high level of probability of success. This can be done by using the instructional technique of moving from simple tasks to the more complex. The final factor of this theory is satisfaction. The learner will feel a level of satisfaction if they believe that the outcome of instruction has met their expectations.



References //Motivation to Learn//, [] //Goal-Setting Theory//, [] //Motivation: What Teachers Need to Know//, Carole A. Ames, [] //ARCS Model Handout//, []